Women in Entrepreneurship Lit Review

Data found by other studies

 @article{ahl2006metaresearch},
 title={Why Research on Women Entrepreneurs Needs New Directions},
 author={Ahl, Helene},
 journal={Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice}
 volume={30}
 Issue={5}
 page={595-621}
 abstract={Research articles on women's entrepreneurship reveal, in spite of intentions to the contrary and in spite of inconclusive research results, a tendency to recreate the idea of women as being secondary to men and of women's businesses being of less significance or, at best, as being a complement. Based on a discourse analysis, this article discusses what research practices cause these results. It suggests new research directions that do not reproduce women's subordination but capture more and richer aspects of women's entrepreneurship.},
URL={http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00138.x/full}
}

Has some interesting meta-theories that we could apply to our research of women in entrepreneurship.

@article{scottincrease},
 title={Why More Women Are Becoming Entrepreneurs},
 author={Scott, Carole E.},
 journal={Journal of Small Business Management}
 abstract={From 1972 to 1982 the number of self-employed women in the United States increased by 69 percent. This represented a rate of increase five times greater than that for men in the same period. From 1977 to 1980 the proportion of non-farm, sole proprietorships operated by women increased from 22.6 percent to 26.1 percent. In addition, the number of non-farm, sole proprietorships operated by couples soared from 284,405 in 1981 to 440,000 in 1982. To find out why women are turning to entrepreneurship in increasing numbers, two surveys were conducted: one of women entrepreneurs in the state of Georgia, and another of both male and female entrepreneurs in the Atlanta area for purposes of comparison.},
URL={https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-4587543/why-more-women-are-becoming-entrepreneurs}
}

Says number of self employed women skyrocked between 1972-1982 (of course, this could just be because more women were entering the workplace in general during this time).

@article{cetindmar2011turkey},
 title={What the numbers tell: The impact of human, family and financial capital on women and men's entry into entrepreneurship in Turkey},
 author={Cetindamar, Dilek},
 journal={Journal of Entrepreneurship and Regional Development}
 volume={24}
 issue={1,2}
 page={29-51}
 year={2011}
 abstract={Entrepreneurship contributes to economic development in countries worldwide. Entrepreneurial activity is beneficial for both men and women, including those in developing countries. However, men and women may not engage in entrepreneurship to the same extent because of differential access to (various forms of) capital. This study examines the relative importance of three types of capital – human, family and financial – in pursuing entrepreneurship. Using data collected in Turkey, we find that regardless of sex, all three forms of capital influence the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur in varying degrees. Contrary to expectations, the impact of human capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur is higher for women than men. Data also revealed that family capital facilitates women's entry into entrepreneurship only when family size is very large (i.e. seven or more). No gender differences are observed in the impact of financial capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur. Findings suggest that to encourage entrepreneurship in Turkey, policy-makers should emphasize access to human and financial capital. Furthermore, findings suggest that women's likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur will be especially encouraged if they have increased access to education, as well as the skills necessary to take advantage of their family capital.},
URL={https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-4587543/why-more-women-are-becoming-entrepreneurs}
}

Unfortunately this study was done in Turkey but they found that "No gender differences are observed in the impact of financial capital on the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur"

=Research for women on boards specifically

 @article{ahern2012valuation},
 title={The Changing of the Boards: The Impact on Firm Valuation of Mandated Female Board Representation},
 author={Ahern, Kenneth and Dittmar, Amy},
 journal={The Quarterly Journal of Economics}
 year={2012}
 abstract={In 2003, a new law required that 40% of Norwegian firms' directors be women—at the time only 9% of directors were women. We use the prequota cross-sectional variation in female board representation to instrument for exogenous changes to corporate boards following the quota. We find that the constraint imposed by the quota caused a significant drop in the stock price at the announcement of the law and a large decline in Tobin's Q over the following years, consistent with the idea that firms choose boards to maximize value. The quota led to younger and less experienced boards, increases in leverage and acquisitions, and deterioration in operating performance.},
URL={https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-abstract/127/1/137/1832366/The-Changing-of-the-Boards-The-Impact-on-Firm?redirectedFrom=fulltext}
}

This study from Norway but is interesting still

 @article{sila2016firmrisk},
 title={Women on board: Does boardroom gender diversity affect firm risk?},
 author={Sila, Vathunyoo and Gonzalez, Angelica},
 journal={Journal of Corporate Finance}
 volume={36}
 page={26-53}
 abstract={We investigate the relationship between boardroom gender diversity and firm risk. To identify a causal effect of gender on risk, we use a dynamic model that controls for reverse causality and for gender and risk being influenced by unobservable firm factors. We find no evidence that female boardroom representation influences equity risk. We also show that findings of a negative relationship between the two variables are spurious and driven by unobserved between-firm heterogeneous factors.},
URL={http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0929119915001248}
}

 @article{rose2007danishboards},
 title={Does female board representation influence firm performance? The Danish evidence},
 author={Rose, Caspar},
 journal={Corporate Governance: An International Review}
 volume={15}
 Issue={2}
 page={404-413}
 abstract={Board diversity has become a major issue within corporate governance where a number of studies seek to explore the impact of diversity on firm performance. The debate focuses on questions such as whether a corporation’s board should reflect the firm’s stakeholders or be more in line with society in general. This article uses a sample of listed Danish firms during the period of 1998–2001 in a cross sectional analysis. Despite that fact that Denmark has gone very far in the liberalisation of women, Danish board rooms are still to a large extent dominated by men. Contrary to a number of other studies, this article does not find any significant link between firm performance as measured by Tobin’s Q and female board representation. This is also the case for board members’ educational background as well as the proportion of foreigners. It is argued that board members with an unconventional background are socialised unconsciously adopting the ideas of the majority of conventional board members, which entails that a potential performance effect does not materialise.},
URL={http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-8683.2007.00570.x/full}
}

Unfortunately is a Danish study. But, Danish board rooms are still to a large extent dominated by men. Contrary to a number of other studies, this article does not find any significant link between firm performance as measured by Tobin’s Q and female board representation.

External factors that could explain the data

@article{langowitz2007propensity},
 title={The Entrepreneurial Propensity of Women},
 author={Langowitz, Nan and Minniti, Maria},
 year={2007},
 journal={Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice}
 volume={31}
 issue={3}
 pages={341-364}
 abstract={Entrepreneurship is becoming an increasingly important source of employment for women across many countries. The level of female involvement in entrepreneurial activity, however, is still significantly lower than that of men. We take a behavioral economics approach and, using a large sample of individuals in 17 countries, we investigate what variables influence the entrepreneurial propensity of women and whether those variables have a significant correlation with differences across genders. In addition to demographic and economic variables, we include a number of perceptual variables. Our results show that subjective perceptual variables have a crucial influence on the entrepreneurial propensity of women and account for much of the difference in entrepreneurial activity between the sexes. Specifically, we find that women tend to perceive themselves and the entrepreneurial environment in a less favorable light than men across all countries in our sample and regardless of entrepreneurial motivation. Our results suggest that perceptual variables may be significant universal factors influencing entrepreneurial behavior.},
URL={http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x/full}
}

Women tend to perceive themselves and the entrepreneurial environment in a less favorable light than men across all countries in our sample and regardless of entrepreneurial motivation.

@article{carter1992family},
 title={Women as Entrepreneurs : A Study of Female Business Owners, Their Motivations, Experiences and Strategies for Success},
 author={Carter, Sara and Cannon, Tom},
 year={1992},
 abstract={Intended for business and academic libraries, this book provides case studies of women entrepreneurs. It considers problems which are specific to women in business; these include raising finances, finding clients, and the simultaneous management of domestic commitments, especially childcare.},
 filename={Carter et al (1992) - Women as Entrepreneurs: A Study of Female Business Owners, Their Motivations, Experiences, and Strategies for Success}
URL={http://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/47694/}
}

This examines reasons women may or may not become business owners.

@article{birley1987training},
 title={Do Women Entrepreneurs Require Different Training?},
 author={Birley, Sue, Moss, Caroline, Peter, Saunders},
 journal={American Journal of Small Business},
 year={1987},
 abstract={This paper analyzes the characteristics of male and female participants attending pioneering entrepreneurship development programs, which form part of an economic strategy directed at increasing the quality and quantfty of new firms. The participants did not need to have a business plan, finance available or formal education, but must have had a “reasonably feasible idea”. The results show significant differences between the characteristics of the male and female entrepreneurs, and the businesses which they form. .}, 
URL={https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/137594.pdf}
}

This discusses the different characteristics of male and female entrepreneurs.

@article{demartino2003mba},
 title={Differences between women and men MBA entrepreneurs: exploring family flexibility and wealth creation as career motivators?},
 author={DeMartino, Richard, Barbato, Robert},
 journal={Journal of Business Venturing},
volume={18}
pages={815-832}
issue={6}
 year={2003},
 abstract={Previous research into gender differences among entrepreneurs has yielded varied explanations as to why female entrepreneurs differ from male entrepreneurs. This study explores motivational differences using a sample of MBA entrepreneurs. This allows comparisons between male and female entrepreneurs, who are similar in terms of business education, educational credentials, and other important variables. Logistic regression is used to measure the relationship between career motivators and gender and between career motivators and gender adjusted for marital status and the presence of dependent children. The study concludes that differences between female and male entrepreneurs become larger if the entrepreneurs are married with dependent children.}
URL={http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S088390260300003X}
}

Study found that differences between male/female entrepreneurs largest when they're married with dependent children as opposed to unmarried.

@article{zapalska1997psychpoland},
 title={A profile of woman entrepreneurs and enterprises in Poland},
 author={Zapalska, Alina},
 journal={Journal of Small Business Management},
pages={76-82}
 year={1997},
 abstract={A study investigates whether Polish female entrepreneurs possess the characteristics required for effective performance as entrepreneurs. Trait analysis suggests that there are no significant differences between the psychological propensities of successful female and male entrepreneurs. The study also explores the types of businesses started by Polish women, their business objectives, and the relationship between the entrepreneur's background and the entrepreneur's decision to start a new venture.}
URL={http://search.proquest.com/docview/220989307?pq-origsite=gscholar}
}

This study found that male and female entrepreneurs don't differ too much psychologically (compared to the study cited above).

@article{cohoon2010differences},
 title={Are Successful Women Entrepreneurs Different from Men?},
 author={Cohoon, J, Wadhwa, Vivek, Mitchell, Lesa},
 journal={Journal of Small Business Management},
pages={1-16}
 year={2010},
 abstract={Women are one particularly understudied group of entrepreneurs. We know very little about female entrepreneurs, and our ignorance of this important demographic is a serious blind spot in any effort to increase the total number of entrepreneurs participating in our economy. What little we do know suggests that women are not nearly as active in the entrepreneurial space as they could be.

This study attempts to address part of this knowledge gap. This based on data were collected in 2008-2009 from 549 respondents from randomly selected high-tech companies who were invited to participate. It compares the backgrounds, and experiences and motivations of men and women entrepreneurs.

Our findings show that successful women and men entrepreneurs are similar in almost every respect. They had equivalent levels of education (slightly less than half earned graduate degrees), early interest in starting their own business (about half had at least some interest), a strong desire to build wealth or capitalize on a business idea, access to funding, and they largely agreed on the top issues and challenges facing any entrepreneur.

The data also identify some small but potentially informative gender differences among successful entrepreneurs. For instance, motivations for starting a business differed slightly between men and women. The latter were more likely to cite a business partner’s encouragement as a key incentive to take the plunge. Women also were more likely than men to get early funding from their business partners.}

URL={http://search.proquest.com/docview/220989307?pq-origsite=gscholar}
}

This study found that male and female entrepreneurs don't differ too much psychologically, only minutely in their reasons for starting a business.

Impacts from less women in VC/entrepreneurship fields

@article{pines2011financialcrisis},
 title={Gender differences in entrepreneurship: Equality, diversity and inclusion in times of global crisis},
 author={Pines, Ayala, Lerner, Miri, Schwartz, Dafna},
 journal={Equality, Diversity, and Inclusion: An International Journal},
 year={2010},
 abstract={ In 2008, the world had undergone a global economic crisis. Since women always face greater difficulties in obtaining capital than men, the economic crisis had a greater effect on them. The purpose of this paper is to examine the implications of the global crisis for women's entrepreneurship, from the perspective of equality, diversity and inclusion.}
URL={http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/02610151011024493}
}

This study found that the rates of women's entrepreneurship are lower than men's. Furthermore, the percent of women entrepreneurs is higher in countries where the general income per capita is small and where women have no other option for making a living.